Ming+Dynasty

Jade Harris, Brionna Haskins, Dante Procopio **The Ming Dynasty**  During the 1350s, resistance against the Yuan government grew from Northern China, and eventually the rebellious group had captured the capital city of Nanjing under the leadership of Chu Yuan-Chang. Eventually, Chu Yuan-Chang pushed out the Mongol leadership by gradually capturing China. In 1368, he declared himself emperor following the capture of Beijing, which started the Ming Dynasty. Many Chinese were displeased with the degree of presence of Mongol culture, and it was very clear that it would be necessary to restructure the government. The Ming Dynasty was the last dynasty that was ruled by the ethnic Han Chinese, and was also a period of extreme social and political order that allowed the culture to flourish.

 After the Ming dynasty settled into power, a wave of political reform occurred, drastically changing the political climate of China. The first emperor of the Ming, Guo Zixing came to power knowing of the political unrest of the previous dynasty of the Yuan and turned his attention towards enforcing strict control over his court the emperor designed an efficient and powerful political system. The Ming court was arranged into a nine level hierarchal system with the emperor at the top. Each rank of the government had a badge that defined their rank. The badges were adorned with different symbols and animals that allowed other political figures to easily identify them (Perkins). After the position of prime minister was abolished to remove the second emperor of the Yuan dynasty from power, the Ming emperor installed a new figure known as the Grand Secretariat (Kaplan). During the early years of the Ming, the Grand Secretariat acted only as an advisor for the emperor, but as the dynasty continued the Grand Secretariat gained control over the empire. However, by Ming dynasty, the strict codes that the first emperors imposed to control their courts still prevented total control by the Grand Secretariat (Perkins). Guo Zixing feared betrayal by those in his court and created harsh punishments that often meant death. During the Ming dynasty, many court officials were executed because of the institution of these punishments, but the harsh government policy allowed the Ming dynasty to remain in power for two hundred years. The implemented system provided the Ming with a necessary drastic change that led to the stability to resist the limited political unrest.

 An additional drastic change was in the currency used by the Chinese. While the Chinese had been relying on paper currency (see figure 1), from the fifteenth century on, they used silver bars to pay their taxes and copper coins to pay for other goods. This soon caused numerous issues due to restrictions on silver that were enacted afterwards. King Phillip IV in Spain began to crack down on smugglers who were illegally shipping silver from Mexico and Peru to places such as China. In addition, Japan shut down the majority of its trade with foreign countries which cut off ano ther of China’s main suppliers of silver. All of these successive events caused a spike in the value of silver, in particular in relation to copper. This increase made it impossible for many provinces to pay taxes, for while their taxes were still in silver, they were only getting paid with copper coins for the crops they sold and their services provided. Rapidly it reached the point at which one thousand copper coins was worth one ounce of silver, then one half ounce, and finally one third of an ounce of silver. These events had a devastating effect on the economy of China, sending them into economic ruin. Unfortunately, this problem was not resolved during the Ming Dynasty, because the issues with silver continued well past the end of the dynasty (“Ming”).

 The Ming Dynasty marked a crucial era for Europeans and European influence in China. Although Europeans had begun venturing into China in previous dynasties, there was an increase in European contact during the Ming. The first Europeans in the area were Dutch and Portuguese merchants and missionaries. The Chinese often referred to the Portuguese as “Franks” and the Dutch as “red haired barbarians”. However, following shortly after were the Italians, specifically the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci who marked the initial arrival of Jesuits in China. During this time, there was great success in spreading Christianity throughout China. Ricci founded various parishes in Nanchang, Nanjing, and eventually even in Beijing. Much of Ricci’s success was due to the fact that he adopted Chinese customs, learning to write in Chinese, and accepting th eir veneration of ancestors. The main reason for Ricci’s acceptance of Chinese tradition was the evidence in many Confucian Classics; certain wordings in these writings proved to Ricci that the Chinese were people of the Bible. Although Ricci experienced some success in spreading Christianity, the Chinese still held on to Daoism, Buddhism, and ancestor worship as their dominant religions (“Ming”).

 The social climate of the Ming dynasty underwent very few changes compared to the previous dynasty. The four major classes of China were mostly unchanged, and the changes that did occur were caused by the economic success the Ming experienced. The highest ranking citizens in Chinese society at the time were called the Shi or “Gentry Scholars.” The Shi were highly prized in Chinese culture due to the fact that during the time becoming educated enough to be considered scholarly one had to somehow gather all the information that they could from across an expansive empire. The next class was the farming class known as the Nong. Prized for their ability to produce the food that fed the people and for their contribution in land taxes, the Nong were respected for their contributions. The Gong were artisans and craftsmen who held a certain level of respect. Their abilities led to their status; however, because they could not pay land taxes, some of their potential was diminished. The Shang, or merchants, were the lowest ranking people and were shunned. Often times the merchants were considered to be greedy because of their occupation. However, during the Ming dynasty, the Shang quickly became extremely prosperous during the Ming in spite of attempts to control them. The excess wealth that the merchants made allowed some to move away from the Shang social position; some people would also buy an education for their descendents or land to become farmers (Ancient China Social Classes). Other than the blurring of class lines, the social aspect of the Ming dynasty changed little over the course of two hundred plus years, unlike the dynamic intellectual element of Ming culture.

 In addition to political and social reconstruction and expansion, the Ming Dynasty was a period of intellectual restoration and improvement. Large universities were formed and a standard curriculum and encyclopedia were developed. Standardized exams on Confucian knowledge, calligraphy, and mathematic subjects were given to students, and some students were sent to study abroad (Kuo 53-55). During this period, China was also the scientific forefront of the world. Scientific developments on artillery improved warfare and resulted in development of the  Huchong Gun. There are also early records of man attempting to fly. For example, a man named Wan Hao attempted flight by launching himself  in a chair (see figure 3) and became the first casualty of the quest for human flight (Hzu). Additionally, a great number of books were produced on scientific topics, but many were also very literary. Three of four works that are hailed as the greatest of Chinese literature were written during this dynasty, including Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Wang Yangming’s philosophies also created and influenced social trends, though folk stories as literature flourished (“Ming Dynasty…”).

 This period also allowed for the rise of the artist scholar. Various schools of painting gained popularity, including the intelligentsia (Wu), formal (Che), and a more eccentric form that is rarer due to the reestablishment of Chinese court, which dictated acceptable forms of art. Painters were instructed to paint realistically to emulate the Southern Song Imperial Painting Academy. These painters favored landscapes, flower and bird works, and figural narratives, because the government felt as though these types of art highlight the benevolent and glorious aspects of the dynasty. Though it was regulated during this period, art was less about overall aesthetic craftsmanship than its personality, uniqueness, and execution. Artists did experiment with styles of drawing and calligraphy with emphasis on restraint and self-cultivation. There was some integration of foreign influences, such as that of the Mongols and the Muslim world (Department of Asian Art). Bronze ware, enamelware, and blue-and-white ware were also developed further during this period with emphasis on craftsmanship and quality (Hzu).

Following a period of under Mongolian rule, the incorporation of outside influences remained highly relevant in Chinese culture. The influence, however, was not just by the Mongols, but also by the Arab world and the Europeans through religion, art, and education. Initially under the rule of Chu Yuan-Chang, Ming Dynasty China was built back up into a thriving cultural and intellectual center under a strong and structured government from the disarray following rebellion against the Yuan.

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